Technical

- Camera
- Lighting
- Sound
- Editing
- Scripting
- Building A Scene
- Building A Story

Camera
The director of a film has multiple shot options available to them when they are creating a scene. Many directors, especially those found in Hollywood believe that shot variety is essential for the audience to be interested in their film. They believe this because it keeps the audience guessing and on the edge of their seat. Shots and angles are important for establishing the meaning of the film in question and without it films would just be boring as they have no variety.

Shots Include:

Extreme Close up

An extreme close up is the shot when the camera is zoomed in really close to the subjects face. For example, it can be a shot of someones eyes or even closer and it can be a shot of someone retina. This shot is usually used because the director wants the audience to focus on the character's emotion rather than the action around them.



Head Close-up & Big Close-up

An head close up is simply a shot that shows the subjects face and a little of their surroundings. Although not as restricted as a Extreme close-up it still does restrict the audience to see what is around the character. This shot is usually used as the director wants said character to be the main focus of the shot.




Close-up & Close Shot

An close up is a simple shot that simply allows the audience to see usually the subjects head and shoulders. This shot is usually used by directors as they want the audience to relise that the certain character is the subject of the shot and it grabs the audiences attention.





Medium Shot

Medium shots are another simple shot that simoly shows from the character waist line and up. It is similar to close ups but they include more of what the character is doing rather than what they are feeling, this shot is used by directors because they still want the audiences focus but they want to show a glimpse of what the character is doing aswell.



Medium close shot

This shot is near idedical to a medium shot but it is from the the shoulders up, Directors use this type of shot to convey the characters emotion.






Medium full shot

This almost idedical to a medium shot however you are able to see more of the setting and what the character is facing. Directors use this shot because they want the audience to understand what problem the character is facing.






Full shot

A full shot is when you can see the whole of the character on the screen and a little of the setting, it is simular to a medium full shot, however it shows more of the character and the background. The director uses this shot because they want to show what the character is doing but without losing focus on them.






Medium long shot

This shot is very similar to the medium long shot but it shows more of the background. The reason why directors use this type of shot is because it gives a good idea of where the character is and what situation he is in.






Long shot

A long shot is another basic shot which includes the whole character in the shot as well as some of the background, this is a similar shot to the medium long. The reason why directors use this shot is because it allows the audience to see what is happening in the background with the character.




Extreme long shot

An extreme long shot is another simple shot, it is simply when you can see more of the background rather than the camera. The reason why directors use this shot is to show how dynamic the location is. You would usually see this shot at the start of a scene as it builds a picture for the audience.






Angles Include:

High Angle, Low Angle and Eye Level

This shot is usually used by directors to show power. For example, a low angle is usually used to show the dominance of a certain character. this makes the audience fear the character as he is above them.






Slanted

This when the camera slants the camera by 45 degrees to one side. The reason why directors use this shot is because it creates unease to the audience because it does not look like a normal shot.








Birds Eye View & Worms Eye View

This when the camera is positoned higher or lower than the subject in which you are focused on. This shot is usually used to show the power of a different character or show a particular setting or location.








Over The Shoulder (OTS)

This is a basic shot where the camera is positioned behind one of the characters, this shot is usually used in conversations between characters as is best portrays what the character is saying. This is also linked to the 180 degree rule as if you go past it then the dialog looks weird and unnatural.




Point of View Shot (POV Shot)

  This is another simple shot that simply puts you in   the perspective of the character and you can see       their point of view of things. This shot is usually     used when the director wants to show what the         character is looking at and what they are feeling.











In Camera Movement Include:

Zoom In, Zoom Out and Pull Focus

Camera movements includes:
- Crane
- Jib
- Track
- Pan
- Tilt
- Steadicam
- Handheld

Sound
Sound can back up the story shown on screen, by comparing the picture with the sound can expand the viewers kinaesthetic impressions and their understanding of what is happening on the screen. Sound can work parallel with the picture and give a viewer a whole new meaning of what is happening on the shot.

Diegetic Sound
Diegesis is the Greek word for encountered story, it is the total world of the story action.
Diegetic sound or actual sound is the sound of the action that can be seen on the screen and it has to originate from the screen aswell, if the characters can hear it then it is diergetic. However, you can off screen diagetic sound this is used to add drama to the scene. The reason why this type of sound is used is because it creates a feeling of normality among the audience and it keeps the film as realistic as possible.

Example: Pulp Fiction
This is an example of diegetic sound as when Samuel L. Jackson has a stare off with the other character and he then drinks from the cup and a sipping noise can be heard over everything else. This is effective because it allows the audience to feel like they are in the moment and it creates a lot of tension for them as after the noise he brings his gun out.







Non-Diegetic Sound
Non Diegetic sound is the sound in which it is not visible on screen or has been implied by the story world. It is added in later and it usually is some form of track to boost the emotion of the character or to simply boost what the character is trying to say. These include:
- Narrators
- SFX
- Mood Music


Example: Zombieland
This is an example of non diegetic sound as it is not coming from the world of the film. In the clip the two men see a truck thsat has vered of the road and is now lying in a ditch just of the highway. The two then head towards the truck hoping there are some valuble goods inside. However we do not no what is inside so some tense music begins to play. This is effective because it builds tension as we can't see what is inside and when we see what is inside it is a relief as it is nothing that will harm them.



Difference
The distinction between the two depends on the viewers understanding of the film. Manipulating the two sounds can create effects such as ambiance which can be used in horror, or suprise the audience which can be used in comedy. This adds a great effect as audiences do not know what to think so the shock or the joke will be more effective.

Parallel Music
Parallel Music combines with the visuals and is completely in sync and these are use to:
- Underline the emotion
- Indicate a sense of time and place
- Embody films
- enables motifs

Contrapuntal music
This is the opposite to paralel music as it creates juxtaposition for the visuals. it is used to:
- condradict what is happening in the scene
- it can change mood of the visuals
- change of the message of the scene.

Editing
To continuity belief editing usually begins some time before the first day of shooting a film. For example, during the pre-production phrase some sort of idea is created keeping the how the shots will look in the edit, this is known as the storyboard. The storyboard is the edit imagined in advance, it usually consists of notes which mark key editorial techniques which are going to be used in the post production phase of making a film. Thinking ahead the director would usually create multiple versions af each shot which consists of different angles and frames just in case in the edit they would like to go down a different root. This is because they feel a different type of shot will feel better for the pace and rhythm the two main ingredients in creating a good film. Inter cutting can set up a juxtaposition of the film, this can be used to create tension for the audience. parallel editing can highlight the contrasts between characters in different situations. When a character is shown in the final shot of the scene is expected to be identified by the audience.

Lighting

This is used to affect the mood of your film as the lighting gives the film a new in depth feel. We use the light sources available and we try to control them to add to the effect of the film. For example, we have the control of the fluorescent lights in the classroom by a simple light switch. We also need to consider how we can control the lighting around us. Without any light you will have no image. Carefully controlled lighting will direct the viewers attention. More importantly however it will create mood for the scene.

Light Quality:
Hard Light will cast a deep shadow. The objects that cast hard shadows are:
- The Sun
- Candlles
- Underfided tungsten lights.

Soft Lights: casts soft shadows with underfined edges. The objects include are:
- Overcast Day
-Lamps with diffusion.
Contrast Range- Latitude
- Latitude describes the contrast range that a camera can represent.

Low Key
- Features High Lighting contrast, with dark shadows and bright pools of light.
- It is associated with night time, mystery and horror,

High Key
- Features a more even low contrast of light.
- The light will be evenly spread and can se the whole of the set.
- Associated with daylight, comedy and the majority of studio shows

Lighting Equipment includes:
- Tungstem Lamps
- Most common professional light ranges from 150W to 24,000W
- Consistent color temperature is 3200 degrees kelvin
- Generate a lot heat so be careful.

Reflectors
- Wjite reflector softens lights
- Silver reflects Hard light
- Mirror reflects difficult light
- Gold reflector warms up the lighting.
- Diffuser breaks the lighting.

General Lighting Setups
- three point lighting: even with countless lights it will still be based around the three point lighting setup. The three lights are:
- The key ligh: usually the brightest of the lights and can cast main shadows
- Fill Light: used to fill out shadows caused by the key light and it is usually softer than the key light.
- Back Light: creates a bright outline of the subject and it helps create depth

Include image of three point lighting.
- Clothes Light: add-on to key light adds shape
- Kick: Add-on to the full light
- Eye light: adds a shine to the actors eyes
- Background: used to help light the background.

Motivated lighting
- this is when the lights is justified for the use of it.
- The lighting will be realistic and not draw attention to itself.
- If the light is unmotivated then the images will look unrealistic however it can use as a technique

General Lighting Technique
- De-emphasize areas
- this will focus the viewers attention ont the subject
- Be careful of shiny and reflectave surfaces
- Taking away light is as useful as adding it

Scripting

In the vast majority of cases, a screen play or script, will be developed as part of the preparatory work prior to filming. In many cases the script represents the very first stretch of a films journeys.
A script of screenplay can be an original work or an adaptation form a existing piece of work.
In the film script, the action of the scene is described together with the movement, actions, expressions, and dialogues of the characters. Industry film scripts observe strict formatting rules.There are usually 6 different types of paragraphs in a script – scene heading, action, character, parenthetical, dialogue, transitions A scene heading always consist of three elements they are – an interior or exterior indicator (EXT. INT.), location or setting(e.g. classroom - Day), time of day (e.g. Yard – night) The actions tells the reader what happens on the screen. A well written script allows the reader to get a 3D experience of the film. This means describing images, sounds, action and speech so well that the readers can understand and connect the text the actual film. The character element introduces the character about to speak. When there is brackets under the character name or above the character dialogues, it gives extra information for the reader. Dialogue is words spoken by characters in a scene. Transitions are used to go from one scene to another by using fades, dissolves, fade to color etc.

Building a Scene

Shot are used to make scenes, which are then to make the plot or story
Film is simply a sequence of shots, after that it turns into a collection of scenes
The difference between a good and bad film all comes down to how the scene are ordered and how they come together
Screenplays are made up of acts, acts are then broken down into sequence, which are then turned into beats, a scene consist of camera placement (INT. EXT.) a location or time
Scene must motivate the next scene just like shots, this allows you to bring the story forward
Doing this hooks the audience on the film – rationale for the scene, its purpose, why it is needed in the screenplay, what reveals about a character or plot, the way it makes the audience curious to what will happen next:
- A scene should be begun as close to its end as possible
- It should increase either the dramatic or comedic effect
- It shouldn’t include anything superfluous
- A scene’s length not run more than two pages
- Action scene should be contrasted with dialogue scenes; heavy scenes with light scenes.
- The audience needs time to breath so give them time
- The pace should increase or decrease in scenes
- Add dilemmas, cliff hangers to keep the audience thinking, or plot twists
- The last line of dialogue should be the strongest because it will help motivate the next scene/shot
- Each scene should convey a sense of dominant mood or emotion
- This can connect to the character emotional, intent, attitude etc.
- Doing this will give the scene direction so the audience knows where the scene going
- Avoid using talking heads to move the story forward, for exposition of the plot, or even backstory
- Always use visual over dialogue, film making strongest part is the visual the audience can see.
- Some sort of conflict must occur to make the scene interesting

Building a story

The questions you should ask when building a story are:
- What is the story really about?
- What kind of setting are you going to establish?
- Will the setting help you give the meaning of the film?
- The main character must be interesting?
- The character who is against them must also be interesting?
- You can have an external antagonist as well, as long as you are creating conflict.
- Everything must happen in the same space of time and also there should not be too many location       involved.
- There should only be one event happening in the story.
- You should put your character in an unpleasant position, for them to resolve it.
- The best way to engage the audience would be by putting your main character in a uncomfortable       position.
- If the predicament is good then a dilemma will occur.
- Neither of the two options should be good which will add depth and engage the audience.
- Good dramas always have conflict, example would be a disagreement between the characters.
- A sense of tension always engages the audience.

Narrative Structures

Narrative
The three main areas of Narrative structure are story, plot and narrative. the plot is the arrangement of which the story is told e.g. beginning, middle and end. The story is the whole world in which the story takes place in, also known as the whole diegesis. A narrative is the overall arrangement of how the story is told. In films, the narrative includes the following:
- The story Context
- The Plot:

The plot is the way the film is told. Plot refers to the sequence of events inside a story which affect other events through the principle of cause and effect. The causal events of a plot can be thought of as a series of sentences linked by "and so". Plots can vary from simple structures such as in a traditional ballad to complex interwoven structures sometimes referred to as an imbroglio. The term plot can serve as a verb and refer to a character planning future actions in the story. The plot is very similar to the story line.

Narrative Structures usually include the following:
- Linear
- Non-linear
- Flashback
- Realist
- Anti-Realist
- Open Endings
- Closed Endings

Linear
This is a narrative that runs in  a straight line in events of chronological order, a good examples of linear narratives are Soap Oprah. They are aimed at actuality as they want to represent real life as it is experienced. A good example is Eastenders as each episode has a beginning, middle and a end in chronological order. For example, in a episode Phil was trying to find out who had punched him so the episode then developed to Phil finding out who done it and then him confronting them about it. However you would of had to watch the next episode to find out what happened when Phil confronted the person who had punched him.

Example: Frozen (2013)
The linear film example I have chosen in Walt Disney's Frozen as the film starts with the girls at a young age then chronologically follows then through their story which involves a equilibrium, a disequilibrium and finally a equilibrium again.
Children's films are a common example of linear films as they have to be simple for the target audience to understand.


Non-Linear
This is the opposite to an linear narrative as it does not proceed in a straight line, as the narrative does not go in chronological order to add drama for the audience. For example, in a crime plot the writer might start with the beginning to keep the audience engaged. The origin of non-linear films date back to the early days of film with the revolutionary Russian film makers such as  Sergei Eisenstein, Vsevolod Pudovkin and Alexander Dovzhenko. In the early 90s however, film director Quentin Tarantino influenced the rise of non-linear films with the most common of his films being Resovouir Dogs (1992) and Pulp Fiction (1994). This then influenced directors of the 21st century to use lon-linear narratives such as Steven Spielberg and Christopher Nolan.

Example: The Grudge (2004)
This is a perfect example of a non-linear narrative as it just throws you into the deep end. For example, the first 10 minutes of the film are about a group of schoolgirls who enter the house and then they are consumed by the Grudge the film then precedes with the movie constantly bouncing back to the origins of the Grudge. They are then explained later on in the film with the use of flashbacks and other filming techniques. Horror film are usually non-linear as they want to keep there viewers on the edge of their seat at all time.



Flashbacks
These are not to be confused with non-linear narratives. They usually begin later on in the story and then return to the beginning of the story and it goes on from there. Flashbacks are normally used by the film maker if they want to explain or back up a story. However, they can also be unreliable. For example,  Alfred Hitchcock's Stage Fright from 1950 notoriously featured a flashback that did not tell the truth but dramatized a lie from a witness.

Example: The Usual Suspects
In this hit thriller flashbacks are used to tell the story of con man Verbal Kint and his criminal friends as well as a mysterious hitman called Keyser Söze. The flashbacks makes the audience feel distorted as even though the flashback is showing us what has happened but the fact that is coming from the mind of a convicted criminal it makes us as the audience question weather this man is telling the truth. As we know he was not telling the truth as later in the film we found out he was not telling the truth and his flashback became a puzzle for the story line of the film. Therefore, this is a example of braking the tradition that flashbacks should always tell the truth.

Realist
All films have a certain sense of realism however, there is a difference between realist and realistic Realist narratives try to capture life as they see it an example of this is Social realism as this genre focuses on problem s we have in everyday life. Realistic film however aim to preserve an internal logic in the film. For example, the film cannot include a random sequence as it would break the films logic, films in which do this usually are left with a bad review of they are just not well made by the director.

Example: Kidulthood (2006)
A good example of a social realist film in the UK was the 2006 hit Kidulthood, this was a social realist film that captures the story of a group of teenagers growing up in a rough area, the story starts with a girl committing suicide and with them getting the day off school, then it shows what they do with their day off. Trevor (main character) also finds out that his ex girlfriend is pregnant and that she thinks they should get back together.

Anti-Realist
This type of narrative has the freedom took break the presentation of life seen in realist films. However, the films still has to be logical or the audiences will be confused and dislike the film. Superhero films even stick to an eternal logic to keep story line to some realism. As well as realism and anti-realism is verisimilitude. Verisimilitude in film is the way to convince the viewers that something is real.

Example: Matrix (1999)
this is a perfect example of a anti-realist setting as the concept of it goes that world we live in is just a illusion created by a alien race who has enslaved the human race, this is a anti-realist because it is completely random however it does not confuse the audience because it is explained in the film so as an audience we believe it is realistic in the film world.


Open Ending
an open ending is when the story teller leaves a major conflict unfinished or unsolved. The ending leaves the audience with the urge to know what happened. It keeps the story unresolved so this means that the audience is still intrigued with the story even after the credits have rolled. The advantage of an open ending is that it keeps the audience guessing and it makes them more intrigued in what is going to happen. The disadvantage of using a open ending is that it annoys some members of the audience as they prefer the conventional story line and they do not wan't to be forced to wait for a ending.

Example: The Italian Job (1969)
The Italian Job is probably the most famous example of an opening ending. The ending goes as follows, the van with the gold has a accident and is now hanging over a cliff with the gold at risk of falling out of the van, the main character forces the other heist members to the front of the van to stop it from tipping over the edge, he then lays on the floor and shuffles towards the gold it tips to towards the door and just when the tension is reaching its peak the film ends and leaves the audience wondering what happened to the crew and the gold. This annoyed audiences however as there was never a sequel or reference to what happened so this was never resolved leaving the audience wondering what happened.

Closed Ending
These are the opposite to open endings as they leave the story completely resolved and they bring a closure to the story, it leaves the audience with no confusion, meaning they are not wondering what is going to happen next. The advantage of closed ending films is that it leaves the audience not asking questions. This can be a disadvantage however, as it leaves the audiences not looking towards the next part as the resolution has been solved.

Example: Attack The Block
This is an example of a closed ending as towards the end of the film the main character Moses played by John Boyega defeats the aliens that have taken over the block of flats by blowing them up. He succeeds however, he is left dangling outside of a window. He climbs back to safety and gets arrested by the SWAT team that stormed the flats, Moses is blamed for what has happened and is taken into custody. This is a closed ending because all questions asked by the audience were answered and there is no tease to a sequel it just ends with Moses being brought into custody, but he is seen as a hero because he saved everyone.
Bibliography:
Plot (narrative) (2016) in Wikipedia. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plot_(narrative) (Accessed: 1 February 2017).